| perltie - how to hide an object class in a simple variable |
perltie - how to hide an object class in a simple variable
tie VARIABLE, CLASSNAME, LIST
$object = tied VARIABLE
untie VARIABLE
Prior to release 5.0 of Perl, a programmer could use dbmopen()
to connect an on-disk database in the standard Unix dbm(3x)
format magically to a %HASH in their program. However, their Perl was either
built with one particular dbm library or another, but not both, and
you couldn't extend this mechanism to other packages or types of variables.
Now you can.
The tie() function binds a variable to a class (package) that will provide
the implementation for access methods for that variable. Once this magic
has been performed, accessing a tied variable automatically triggers
method calls in the proper class. The complexity of the class is
hidden behind magic methods calls. The method names are in ALL CAPS,
which is a convention that Perl uses to indicate that they're called
implicitly rather than explicitly--just like the BEGIN() and END()
functions.
In the tie() call, VARIABLE is the name of the variable to be
enchanted. CLASSNAME is the name of a class implementing objects of
the correct type. Any additional arguments in the LIST are passed to
the appropriate constructor method for that class--meaning TIESCALAR(),
TIEARRAY(), TIEHASH(), or TIEHANDLE(). (Typically these are arguments
such as might be passed to the dbminit() function of C.) The object
returned by the ``new'' method is also returned by the tie() function,
which would be useful if you wanted to access other methods in
CLASSNAME. (You don't actually have to return a reference to a right
``type'' (e.g., HASH or CLASSNAME) so long as it's a properly blessed
object.) You can also retrieve a reference to the underlying object
using the tied() function.
Unlike dbmopen(), the tie() function will not use or require a module
for you--you need to do that explicitly yourself.
A class implementing a tied scalar should define the following methods: TIESCALAR, FETCH, STORE, and possibly UNTIE and/or DESTROY.
Let's look at each in turn, using as an example a tie class for scalars that allows the user to do something like:
tie $his_speed, 'Nice', getppid();
tie $my_speed, 'Nice', $$;
And now whenever either of those variables is accessed, its current system priority is retrieved and returned. If those variables are set, then the process's priority is changed!
We'll use Jarkko Hietaniemi <jhi@iki.fi>'s BSD::Resource class (not
included) to access the PRIO_PROCESS, PRIO_MIN, and PRIO_MAX constants
from your system, as well as the getpriority() and setpriority() system
calls. Here's the preamble of the class.
package Nice;
use Carp;
use BSD::Resource;
use strict;
$Nice::DEBUG = 0 unless defined $Nice::DEBUG;
sub TIESCALAR {
my $class = shift;
my $pid = shift || $$; # 0 means me
if ($pid !~ /^\d+$/) {
carp "Nice::Tie::Scalar got non-numeric pid $pid" if $^W;
return undef;
}
unless (kill 0, $pid) { # EPERM or ERSCH, no doubt
carp "Nice::Tie::Scalar got bad pid $pid: $!" if $^W;
return undef;
}
return bless \$pid, $class;
}
This tie class has chosen to return an error rather than raising an
exception if its constructor should fail. While this is how dbmopen() works,
other classes may well not wish to be so forgiving. It checks the global
variable $^W to see whether to emit a bit of noise anyway.
sub FETCH {
my $self = shift;
confess "wrong type" unless ref $self;
croak "usage error" if @_;
my $nicety;
local($!) = 0;
$nicety = getpriority(PRIO_PROCESS, $$self);
if ($!) { croak "getpriority failed: $!" }
return $nicety;
}
This time we've decided to blow up (raise an exception) if the renice fails--there's no place for us to return an error otherwise, and it's probably the right thing to do.
sub STORE {
my $self = shift;
confess "wrong type" unless ref $self;
my $new_nicety = shift;
croak "usage error" if @_;
if ($new_nicety < PRIO_MIN) {
carp sprintf
"WARNING: priority %d less than minimum system priority %d",
$new_nicety, PRIO_MIN if $^W;
$new_nicety = PRIO_MIN;
}
if ($new_nicety > PRIO_MAX) {
carp sprintf
"WARNING: priority %d greater than maximum system priority %d",
$new_nicety, PRIO_MAX if $^W;
$new_nicety = PRIO_MAX;
}
unless (defined setpriority(PRIO_PROCESS,
$$self,
$new_nicety))
{
confess "setpriority failed: $!";
}
}
untie occurs. This can be useful
if the class needs to know when no further calls will be made. (Except DESTROY
of course.) See The untie Gotcha below for more details.
sub DESTROY {
my $self = shift;
confess "wrong type" unless ref $self;
carp "[ Nice::DESTROY pid $$self ]" if $Nice::DEBUG;
}
That's about all there is to it. Actually, it's more than all there is to it, because we've done a few nice things here for the sake of completeness, robustness, and general aesthetics. Simpler TIESCALAR classes are certainly possible.
A class implementing a tied ordinary array should define the following methods: TIEARRAY, FETCH, STORE, FETCHSIZE, STORESIZE, CLEAR and perhaps UNTIE and/or DESTROY.
FETCHSIZE and STORESIZE are used to provide $#array and
equivalent scalar(@array) access.
The methods POP, PUSH, SHIFT, UNSHIFT, SPLICE, DELETE, and EXISTS are
required if the perl operator with the corresponding (but lowercase) name
is to operate on the tied array. The Tie::Array class can be used as a
base class to implement the first five of these in terms of the basic
methods above. The default implementations of DELETE and EXISTS in
Tie::Array simply croak.
In addition EXTEND will be called when perl would have pre-extended allocation in a real array.
For this discussion, we'll implement an array whose elements are a fixed size at creation. If you try to create an element larger than the fixed size, you'll take an exception. For example:
use FixedElem_Array;
tie @array, 'FixedElem_Array', 3;
$array[0] = 'cat'; # ok.
$array[1] = 'dogs'; # exception, length('dogs') > 3.
The preamble code for the class is as follows:
package FixedElem_Array;
use Carp;
use strict;
In our example, just to show you that you don't really have to return an
ARRAY reference, we'll choose a HASH reference to represent our object.
A HASH works out well as a generic record type: the {ELEMSIZE} field will
store the maximum element size allowed, and the {ARRAY} field will hold the
true ARRAY ref. If someone outside the class tries to dereference the
object returned (doubtless thinking it an ARRAY ref), they'll blow up.
This just goes to show you that you should respect an object's privacy.
sub TIEARRAY {
my $class = shift;
my $elemsize = shift;
if ( @_ || $elemsize =~ /\D/ ) {
croak "usage: tie ARRAY, '" . __PACKAGE__ . "', elem_size";
}
return bless {
ELEMSIZE => $elemsize,
ARRAY => [],
}, $class;
}
sub FETCH {
my $self = shift;
my $index = shift;
return $self->{ARRAY}->[$index];
}
If a negative array index is used to read from an array, the index
will be translated to a positive one internally by calling FETCHSIZE
before being passed to FETCH. You may disable this feature by
assigning a true value to the variable $NEGATIVE_INDICES in the
tied array class.
As you may have noticed, the name of the FETCH method (et al.) is the same for all accesses, even though the constructors differ in names (TIESCALAR vs TIEARRAY). While in theory you could have the same class servicing several tied types, in practice this becomes cumbersome, and it's easiest to keep them at simply one tie type per class.
In our example, undef is really $self->{ELEMSIZE} number of
spaces so we have a little more work to do here:
sub STORE {
my $self = shift;
my( $index, $value ) = @_;
if ( length $value > $self->{ELEMSIZE} ) {
croak "length of $value is greater than $self->{ELEMSIZE}";
}
# fill in the blanks
$self->EXTEND( $index ) if $index > $self->FETCHSIZE();
# right justify to keep element size for smaller elements
$self->{ARRAY}->[$index] = sprintf "%$self->{ELEMSIZE}s", $value;
}
Negative indexes are treated the same as with FETCH.
scalar(@array)). For example:
sub FETCHSIZE {
my $self = shift;
return scalar @{$self->{ARRAY}};
}
undef should be returned for new positions.
If the array becomes smaller then entries beyond count should be
deleted.
In our example, 'undef' is really an element containing
$self->{ELEMSIZE} number of spaces. Observe:
sub STORESIZE {
my $self = shift;
my $count = shift;
if ( $count > $self->FETCHSIZE() ) {
foreach ( $count - $self->FETCHSIZE() .. $count ) {
$self->STORE( $_, '' );
}
} elsif ( $count < $self->FETCHSIZE() ) {
foreach ( 0 .. $self->FETCHSIZE() - $count - 2 ) {
$self->POP();
}
}
}
In our example, we want to make sure there are no blank (undef)
entries, so EXTEND will make use of STORESIZE to fill elements
as needed:
sub EXTEND {
my $self = shift;
my $count = shift;
$self->STORESIZE( $count );
}
In our example, we will determine that if an element consists of
$self->{ELEMSIZE} spaces only, it does not exist:
sub EXISTS {
my $self = shift;
my $index = shift;
return 0 if ! defined $self->{ARRAY}->[$index] ||
$self->{ARRAY}->[$index] eq ' ' x $self->{ELEMSIZE};
return 1;
}
In our example, a deleted item is $self->{ELEMSIZE} spaces:
sub DELETE {
my $self = shift;
my $index = shift;
return $self->STORE( $index, '' );
}
sub CLEAR {
my $self = shift;
return $self->{ARRAY} = [];
}
sub PUSH {
my $self = shift;
my @list = @_;
my $last = $self->FETCHSIZE();
$self->STORE( $last + $_, $list[$_] ) foreach 0 .. $#list;
return $self->FETCHSIZE();
}
sub POP {
my $self = shift;
return pop @{$self->{ARRAY}};
}
sub SHIFT {
my $self = shift;
return shift @{$self->{ARRAY}};
}
sub UNSHIFT {
my $self = shift;
my @list = @_;
my $size = scalar( @list );
# make room for our list
@{$self->{ARRAY}}[ $size .. $#{$self->{ARRAY}} + $size ]
= @{$self->{ARRAY}};
$self->STORE( $_, $list[$_] ) foreach 0 .. $#list;
}
splice on the array.
offset is optional and defaults to zero, negative values count back from the end of the array.
length is optional and defaults to rest of the array.
LIST may be empty.
Returns a list of the original length elements at offset.
In our example, we'll use a little shortcut if there is a LIST:
sub SPLICE {
my $self = shift;
my $offset = shift || 0;
my $length = shift || $self->FETCHSIZE() - $offset;
my @list = ();
if ( @_ ) {
tie @list, __PACKAGE__, $self->{ELEMSIZE};
@list = @_;
}
return splice @{$self->{ARRAY}}, $offset, $length, @list;
}
untie happens. (See The untie Gotcha below.)
Hashes were the first Perl data type to be tied (see dbmopen()). A class
implementing a tied hash should define the following methods: TIEHASH is
the constructor. FETCH and STORE access the key and value pairs. EXISTS
reports whether a key is present in the hash, and DELETE deletes one.
CLEAR empties the hash by deleting all the key and value pairs. FIRSTKEY
and NEXTKEY implement the keys() and each() functions to iterate over all
the keys. SCALAR is triggered when the tied hash is evaluated in scalar
context, and in 5.28 onwards, by keys in boolean context. UNTIE is
called when untie happens, and DESTROY is called when the tied variable
is garbage collected.
If this seems like a lot, then feel free to inherit from merely the standard Tie::StdHash module for most of your methods, redefining only the interesting ones. See the Tie::Hash manpage for details.
Remember that Perl distinguishes between a key not existing in the hash,
and the key existing in the hash but having a corresponding value of
undef. The two possibilities can be tested with the exists() and
defined() functions.
Here's an example of a somewhat interesting tied hash class: it gives you a hash representing a particular user's dot files. You index into the hash with the name of the file (minus the dot) and you get back that dot file's contents. For example:
use DotFiles;
tie %dot, 'DotFiles';
if ( $dot{profile} =~ /MANPATH/ ||
$dot{login} =~ /MANPATH/ ||
$dot{cshrc} =~ /MANPATH/ )
{
print "you seem to set your MANPATH\n";
}
Or here's another sample of using our tied class:
tie %him, 'DotFiles', 'daemon';
foreach $f ( keys %him ) {
printf "daemon dot file %s is size %d\n",
$f, length $him{$f};
}
In our tied hash DotFiles example, we use a regular
hash for the object containing several important
fields, of which only the {LIST} field will be what the
user thinks of as the real hash.
Here's the start of Dotfiles.pm:
package DotFiles;
use Carp;
sub whowasi { (caller(1))[3] . '()' }
my $DEBUG = 0;
sub debug { $DEBUG = @_ ? shift : 1 }
For our example, we want to be able to emit debugging info to help in tracing
during development. We keep also one convenience function around
internally to help print out warnings; whowasi() returns the function name
that calls it.
Here are the methods for the DotFiles tied hash.
Here's the constructor:
sub TIEHASH {
my $self = shift;
my $user = shift || $>;
my $dotdir = shift || '';
croak "usage: @{[&whowasi]} [USER [DOTDIR]]" if @_;
$user = getpwuid($user) if $user =~ /^\d+$/;
my $dir = (getpwnam($user))[7]
|| croak "@{[&whowasi]}: no user $user";
$dir .= "/$dotdir" if $dotdir;
my $node = {
USER => $user,
HOME => $dir,
LIST => {},
CLOBBER => 0,
};
opendir(DIR, $dir)
|| croak "@{[&whowasi]}: can't opendir $dir: $!";
foreach $dot ( grep /^\./ && -f "$dir/$_", readdir(DIR)) {
$dot =~ s/^\.//;
$node->{LIST}{$dot} = undef;
}
closedir DIR;
return bless $node, $self;
}
It's probably worth mentioning that if you're going to filetest the
return values out of a readdir, you'd better prepend the directory
in question. Otherwise, because we didn't chdir() there, it would
have been testing the wrong file.
Here's the fetch for our DotFiles example.
sub FETCH {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
my $dir = $self->{HOME};
my $file = "$dir/.$dot";
unless (exists $self->{LIST}->{$dot} || -f $file) {
carp "@{[&whowasi]}: no $dot file" if $DEBUG;
return undef;
}
if (defined $self->{LIST}->{$dot}) {
return $self->{LIST}->{$dot};
} else {
return $self->{LIST}->{$dot} = `cat $dir/.$dot`;
}
}
It was easy to write by having it call the Unix cat(1) command, but it
would probably be more portable to open the file manually (and somewhat
more efficient). Of course, because dot files are a Unixy concept, we're
not that concerned.
Here in our DotFiles example, we'll be careful not to let
them try to overwrite the file unless they've called the clobber()
method on the original object reference returned by tie().
sub STORE {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
my $value = shift;
my $file = $self->{HOME} . "/.$dot";
my $user = $self->{USER};
croak "@{[&whowasi]}: $file not clobberable"
unless $self->{CLOBBER};
open(my $f, '>', $file) || croak "can't open $file: $!";
print $f $value;
close($f);
}
If they wanted to clobber something, they might say:
$ob = tie %daemon_dots, 'daemon';
$ob->clobber(1);
$daemon_dots{signature} = "A true daemon\n";
Another way to lay hands on a reference to the underlying object is to
use the tied() function, so they might alternately have set clobber
using:
tie %daemon_dots, 'daemon';
tied(%daemon_dots)->clobber(1);
The clobber method is simply:
sub clobber {
my $self = shift;
$self->{CLOBBER} = @_ ? shift : 1;
}
delete() function. Again, we'll
be careful to check whether they really want to clobber files.
sub DELETE {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
my $file = $self->{HOME} . "/.$dot";
croak "@{[&whowasi]}: won't remove file $file"
unless $self->{CLOBBER};
delete $self->{LIST}->{$dot};
my $success = unlink($file);
carp "@{[&whowasi]}: can't unlink $file: $!" unless $success;
$success;
}
The value returned by DELETE becomes the return value of the call to delete(). If you want to emulate the normal behavior of delete(), you should return whatever FETCH would have returned for this key. In this example, we have chosen instead to return a value which tells the caller whether the file was successfully deleted.
In our example, that would remove all the user's dot files! It's such a dangerous thing that they'll have to set CLOBBER to something higher than 1 to make it happen.
sub CLEAR {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
croak "@{[&whowasi]}: won't remove all dot files for $self->{USER}"
unless $self->{CLOBBER} > 1;
my $dot;
foreach $dot ( keys %{$self->{LIST}}) {
$self->DELETE($dot);
}
}
exists() function
on a particular hash. In our example, we'll look at the {LIST}
hash element for this:
sub EXISTS {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
return exists $self->{LIST}->{$dot};
}
each() call.
sub FIRSTKEY {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $a = keys %{$self->{LIST}}; # reset each() iterator
each %{$self->{LIST}}
}
FIRSTKEY is always called in scalar context and it should just
return the first key. values(), and each() in list context,
will call FETCH for the returned keys.
each() iteration. It has a
second argument which is the last key that had been accessed. This is
useful if you're caring about ordering or calling the iterator from more
than one sequence, or not really storing things in a hash anywhere.
NEXTKEY is always called in scalar context and it should just
return the next key. values(), and each() in list context,
will call FETCH for the returned keys.
For our example, we're using a real hash so we'll do just the simple thing, but we'll have to go through the LIST field indirectly.
sub NEXTKEY {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
return each %{ $self->{LIST} }
}
keys in boolean context. In order to mimic the behaviour of
untied hashes, this method must return a value which when used as boolean,
indicates whether the tied hash is considered empty. If this method does
not exist, perl will make some educated guesses and return true when
the hash is inside an iteration. If this isn't the case, FIRSTKEY is
called, and the result will be a false value if FIRSTKEY returns the empty
list, true otherwise.
However, you should not blindly rely on perl always doing the right thing. Particularly, perl will mistakenly return true when you clear the hash by repeatedly calling DELETE until it is empty. You are therefore advised to supply your own SCALAR method when you want to be absolutely sure that your hash behaves nicely in scalar context.
In our example we can just call scalar on the underlying hash
referenced by $self->{LIST}:
sub SCALAR {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
return scalar %{ $self->{LIST} }
}
NOTE: In perl 5.25 the behavior of scalar %hash on an untied hash changed to return the count of keys. Prior to this it returned a string containing information about the bucket setup of the hash. See bucket_ratio in the Hash::Util manpage for a backwards compatibility path.
untie occurs. See The untie Gotcha below.
sub DESTROY {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
}
Note that functions such as keys() and values() may return huge lists
when used on large objects, like DBM files. You may prefer to use the
each() function to iterate over such. Example:
# print out history file offsets
use NDBM_File;
tie(%HIST, 'NDBM_File', '/usr/lib/news/history', 1, 0);
while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
}
untie(%HIST);
This is partially implemented now.
A class implementing a tied filehandle should define the following methods: TIEHANDLE, at least one of PRINT, PRINTF, WRITE, READLINE, GETC, READ, and possibly CLOSE, UNTIE and DESTROY. The class can also provide: BINMODE, OPEN, EOF, FILENO, SEEK, TELL - if the corresponding perl operators are used on the handle.
When STDERR is tied, its PRINT method will be called to issue warnings
and error messages. This feature is temporarily disabled during the call,
which means you can use warn() inside PRINT without starting a recursive
loop. And just like __WARN__ and __DIE__ handlers, STDERR's PRINT
method may be called to report parser errors, so the caveats mentioned under
%SIG in the perlvar manpage apply.
All of this is especially useful when perl is embedded in some other program, where output to STDOUT and STDERR may have to be redirected in some special way. See nvi and the Apache module for examples.
When tying a handle, the first argument to tie should begin with an
asterisk. So, if you are tying STDOUT, use *STDOUT. If you have
assigned it to a scalar variable, say $handle, use *$handle.
tie $handle ties the scalar variable $handle, not the handle inside
it.
In our example we're going to create a shouting handle.
package Shout;
sub TIEHANDLE { print "<shout>\n"; my $i; bless \$i, shift }
syswrite function.
sub WRITE {
$r = shift;
my($buf,$len,$offset) = @_;
print "WRITE called, \$buf=$buf, \$len=$len, \$offset=$offset";
}
print() or say() functions. Beyond its self reference
it also expects the list that was passed to the print function.
sub PRINT { $r = shift; $$r++; print join($,,map(uc($_),@_)),$\ }
say() acts just like print() except $\ will be localized to \n so
you need do nothing special to handle say() in PRINT().
printf() function.
Beyond its self reference it also expects the format and list that was
passed to the printf function.
sub PRINTF {
shift;
my $fmt = shift;
print sprintf($fmt, @_);
}
read
or sysread functions.
sub READ {
my $self = shift;
my $bufref = \$_[0];
my(undef,$len,$offset) = @_;
print "READ called, \$buf=$bufref, \$len=$len, \$offset=$offset";
# add to $$bufref, set $len to number of characters read
$len;
}
<HANDLE>
or readline HANDLE.
As per readline, in scalar context it should return
the next line, or undef for no more data. In list context it should
return all remaining lines, or an empty list for no more data. The strings
returned should include the input record separator $/ (see the perlvar manpage),
unless it is undef (which means ``slurp'' mode).
sub READLINE {
my $r = shift;
if (wantarray) {
return ("all remaining\n",
"lines up\n",
"to eof\n");
} else {
return "READLINE called " . ++$$r . " times\n";
}
}
getc function is called.
sub GETC { print "Don't GETC, Get Perl"; return "a"; }
eof function is called.
Starting with Perl 5.12, an additional integer parameter will be passed. It
will be zero if eof is called without parameter; 1 if eof is given
a filehandle as a parameter, e.g. eof(FH); and 2 in the very special
case that the tied filehandle is ARGV and eof is called with an empty
parameter list, e.g. eof().
sub EOF { not length $stringbuf }
close
function.
sub CLOSE { print "CLOSE called.\n" }
untie happens.
It may be appropriate to ``auto CLOSE'' when this occurs. See
The untie Gotcha below.
sub DESTROY { print "</shout>\n" }
Here's how to use our little example:
tie(*FOO,'Shout');
print FOO "hello\n";
$a = 4; $b = 6;
print FOO $a, " plus ", $b, " equals ", $a + $b, "\n";
print <FOO>;
You can define for all tie types an UNTIE method that will be called
at untie(). See The untie Gotcha below.
untie Gotcha
If you intend making use of the object returned from either tie() or
tied(), and if the tie's target class defines a destructor, there is a
subtle gotcha you must guard against.
As setup, consider this (admittedly rather contrived) example of a tie; all it does is use a file to keep a log of the values assigned to a scalar.
package Remember;
use strict;
use warnings;
use IO::File;
sub TIESCALAR {
my $class = shift;
my $filename = shift;
my $handle = IO::File->new( "> $filename" )
or die "Cannot open $filename: $!\n";
print $handle "The Start\n";
bless {FH => $handle, Value => 0}, $class;
}
sub FETCH {
my $self = shift;
return $self->{Value};
}
sub STORE {
my $self = shift;
my $value = shift;
my $handle = $self->{FH};
print $handle "$value\n";
$self->{Value} = $value;
}
sub DESTROY {
my $self = shift;
my $handle = $self->{FH};
print $handle "The End\n";
close $handle;
}
1;
Here is an example that makes use of this tie:
use strict;
use Remember;
my $fred;
tie $fred, 'Remember', 'myfile.txt';
$fred = 1;
$fred = 4;
$fred = 5;
untie $fred;
system "cat myfile.txt";
This is the output when it is executed:
The Start
1
4
5
The End
So far so good. Those of you who have been paying attention will have spotted that the tied object hasn't been used so far. So lets add an extra method to the Remember class to allow comments to be included in the file; say, something like this:
sub comment {
my $self = shift;
my $text = shift;
my $handle = $self->{FH};
print $handle $text, "\n";
}
And here is the previous example modified to use the comment method
(which requires the tied object):
use strict;
use Remember;
my ($fred, $x);
$x = tie $fred, 'Remember', 'myfile.txt';
$fred = 1;
$fred = 4;
comment $x "changing...";
$fred = 5;
untie $fred;
system "cat myfile.txt";
When this code is executed there is no output. Here's why:
When a variable is tied, it is associated with the object which is the
return value of the TIESCALAR, TIEARRAY, or TIEHASH function. This
object normally has only one reference, namely, the implicit reference
from the tied variable. When untie() is called, that reference is
destroyed. Then, as in the first example above, the object's
destructor (DESTROY) is called, which is normal for objects that have
no more valid references; and thus the file is closed.
In the second example, however, we have stored another reference to
the tied object in $x. That means that when untie() gets called
there will still be a valid reference to the object in existence, so
the destructor is not called at that time, and thus the file is not
closed. The reason there is no output is because the file buffers
have not been flushed to disk.
Now that you know what the problem is, what can you do to avoid it?
Prior to the introduction of the optional UNTIE method the only way
was the good old -w flag. Which will spot any instances where you call
untie() and there are still valid references to the tied object. If
the second script above this near the top use warnings 'untie'
or was run with the -w flag, Perl prints this
warning message:
untie attempted while 1 inner references still exist
To get the script to work properly and silence the warning make sure
there are no valid references to the tied object before untie() is
called:
undef $x;
untie $fred;
Now that UNTIE exists the class designer can decide which parts of the
class functionality are really associated with untie and which with
the object being destroyed. What makes sense for a given class depends
on whether the inner references are being kept so that non-tie-related
methods can be called on the object. But in most cases it probably makes
sense to move the functionality that would have been in DESTROY to the UNTIE
method.
If the UNTIE method exists then the warning above does not occur. Instead the UNTIE method is passed the count of ``extra'' references and can issue its own warning if appropriate. e.g. to replicate the no UNTIE case this method can be used:
sub UNTIE
{
my ($obj,$count) = @_;
carp "untie attempted while $count inner references still exist"
if $count;
}
See the DB_File manpage or the Config manpage for some interesting tie() implementations.
A good starting point for many tie() implementations is with one of the
modules the Tie::Scalar manpage, the Tie::Array manpage, the Tie::Hash manpage, or the Tie::Handle manpage.
The normal return provided by scalar(%hash) is not
available. What this means is that using %tied_hash in boolean
context doesn't work right (currently this always tests false,
regardless of whether the hash is empty or hash elements).
[ This paragraph needs review in light of changes in 5.25 ]
Localizing tied arrays or hashes does not work. After exiting the scope the arrays or the hashes are not restored.
Counting the number of entries in a hash via scalar(keys(%hash))
or scalar(values(%hash)) is inefficient since it needs to iterate
through all the entries with FIRSTKEY/NEXTKEY.
Tied hash/array slices cause multiple FETCH/STORE pairs, there are no tie methods for slice operations.
You cannot easily tie a multilevel data structure (such as a hash of hashes) to a dbm file. The first problem is that all but GDBM and Berkeley DB have size limitations, but beyond that, you also have problems with how references are to be represented on disk. One module that does attempt to address this need is DBM::Deep. Check your nearest CPAN site as described in perlmodlib for source code. Note that despite its name, DBM::Deep does not use dbm. Another earlier attempt at solving the problem is MLDBM, which is also available on the CPAN, but which has some fairly serious limitations.
Tied filehandles are still incomplete. sysopen(), truncate(),
flock(), fcntl(), stat() and -X can't currently be trapped.
Tom Christiansen
TIEHANDLE by Sven Verdoolaege <skimo@dns.ufsia.ac.be> and Doug MacEachern <dougm@osf.org>
UNTIE by Nick Ing-Simmons <nick@ing-simmons.net>
SCALAR by Tassilo von Parseval <tassilo.von.parseval@rwth-aachen.de>
Tying Arrays by Casey West <casey@geeknest.com>
| perltie - how to hide an object class in a simple variable |